Chapter 1 Solutions — The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

The French Revolution transferred sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of French citizens, proclaiming that it was the people who would constitute the nation and shape its destiny.

To create a sense of collective identity, the revolutionaries: promoted the ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen), emphasising a united community with equal rights under a constitution; chose a new tricolour flag to replace the royal standard; renamed the Estates General (elected by active citizens) as the National Assembly; and composed new hymns, took oaths and commemorated martyrs in the name of the nation.

A centralised administrative system framed uniform laws for all citizens; internal customs duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted. Regional dialects were discouraged and French, as spoken and written in Paris, became the common national language.

In 1848 the middle classes tried to unite the different regions of the German confederation into a nation-state governed by an elected parliament, but this liberal initiative was repressed by the combined forces of the monarchy and the military, supported by the large landowners (Junkers) of Prussia.

From then on Prussia took the leadership of the movement for national unification. Its chief minister, Otto von Bismarck, was the architect of this process, carried out with the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy. Three wars over seven years — with Austria, Denmark and France — ended in Prussian victory and completed unification.

In January 1871 the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles. The new state emphasised modernising the currency, banking, and legal and judicial systems, and Prussian measures often became a model for the rest of Germany.

In the administrative field Napoleon incorporated revolutionary principles to make the whole system more rational and efficient. The Civil Code of 1804 — usually known as the Napoleonic Code — did away with all privileges based on birth, established equality before the law and secured the right to property. This Code was exported to the regions under French control.

In the Dutch Republic, in Switzerland, in Italy and Germany, Napoleon simplified administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues. In the towns, guild restrictions were removed. Transport and communication systems were improved, so peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen benefited from the newfound freedom.