Summary
Chapter 4 of Our Pasts II covers the Mughal Empire from the 16th to 17th century, explaining how the Mughals expanded from Agra and Delhi to control nearly the entire Indian subcontinent, and how they governed through mansabdars, jagirdars, the zabt revenue system, and Akbar's policy of sulh-i kul (universal peace).
The Mughals descended from Genghis Khan (died 1227) on their mother's side and Timur (died 1404) on their father's side, though they preferred their Timurid ancestry. Starting from Agra and Delhi in the latter half of the 16th century, they expanded to control nearly the entire subcontinent by the 17th century. Unlike many rulers, they followed coparcenary inheritance rather than primogeniture. They built administration through mansabdars (ranked officials) and jagirdars, and revenue was collected through the zabt system introduced by Akbar's minister Todar Mal. Akbar's policy of sulh-i kul (universal peace) promoted tolerance across religions. Abul Fazl chronicled Akbar's reign in the three-volume Akbar Nama, with the third volume, Ain-i Akbari, providing rich statistical details on administration, crops, yields, prices, wages, and revenues.
Key points & formulas
- 01The Mughals descended from Genghis Khan (died 1227) on their mother's side and Timur (died 1404) on their father's side; they preferred their Timurid identity and disliked the Mongol label because of its association with massacre and the rival Uzbegs
- 02From the latter half of the 16th century the Mughals expanded from Agra and Delhi to control nearly the entire subcontinent by the 17th century, leaving administrative and governance structures that outlasted their rule
- 03The Mughals followed coparcenary inheritance — dividing the estate among all sons — rather than primogeniture (eldest son inherits all)
- 04Many Rajput rulers allied with the Mughals through marriage: Jahangir's mother was a Kachhwaha princess from Amber (modern-day Jaipur) and Shah Jahan's mother was a Rathor princess from Marwar (Jodhpur)
- 05Mansabdars held ranked positions (mansab/zat); in Akbar's reign there were 29 mansabdars with a zat of 5,000, rising to 79 by Aurangzeb's reign; they had to maintain a specified number of sawars (cavalrymen)
- 06Akbar's revenue minister Todar Mal introduced the zabt system — a 10-year survey of crop yields, prices, and cultivated areas dividing land into revenue circles — though it was not applicable in Gujarat and Bengal
- 07Abul Fazl, Akbar's close friend and courtier, wrote the three-volume Akbar Nama; the third volume, Ain-i Akbari, contains detailed statistics on administration, army, revenues, crops, yields, prices, and wages
- 08Akbar's sulh-i kul (universal peace) policy extended tolerance to all religions; Mehrunnisa married Jahangir in 1611 and received the title Nur Jahan, gaining significant influence including the right to issue farmans and have her name struck on silver coins
Frequently asked questions
01Who were the Mughals and from whom did they descend?
The Mughals descended from two great lineages. From their mother's side they were descendants of Genghis Khan (died 1227), the Mongol ruler who ruled parts of China and Central Asia. From their father's side they were successors of Timur (died 1404), the ruler of Iran, Iraq, and modern-day Turkey.
02Why did the Mughals not like to be called Mughal or Mongol?
Because Genghis Khan's memory was associated with the massacre of innumerable people, and the term Mongol was also linked with the Uzbegs, the Mughals' Mongol competitors. The Mughals were instead proud of their Timurid ancestry and celebrated it by having pictures made of Timur alongside each successive ruler.
03What is the difference between primogeniture and coparcenary inheritance?
Primogeniture is the rule where the eldest son inherits his father's entire estate. The Mughals did not follow this; instead they followed the Mughal and Timurid custom of coparcenary inheritance, which means dividing the inheritance among all the sons.
04What was a mansabdar and how was the rank determined?
A mansabdar was someone who held a mansab — a position or rank in Mughal service. The rank and salary were determined by a numerical value called zat. The higher the zat, the more prestigious the position and the larger the salary. Mansabdars also had to maintain a specified number of sawars (cavalrymen).
05What were jagirs and how were jagirdars different from iqta holders?
Jagirs were revenue assignments given to mansabdars as salary — somewhat like iqtas. But unlike iqta holders, most jagirdars did not actually reside in or administer their jagirs. They only had rights to the revenue of their assignments, which was collected by their servants while the jagirdars themselves served in some other part of the country.
06What was the zabt revenue system and who introduced it?
Akbar's revenue minister Todar Mal carried out a careful survey of crop yields, prices, and areas cultivated for a 10-year period. The land was divided into revenue circles, each with its own schedule of revenue rates for individual crops. This system was known as zabt. It was prevalent where Mughal administrators could survey land carefully, but was not possible in provinces such as Gujarat and Bengal.
07What is the Akbar Nama and what does the Ain-i Akbari contain?
Akbar ordered his close friend and courtier Abul Fazl to write a history of his reign. Abul Fazl wrote a three-volume history titled Akbar Nama. The first volume dealt with Akbar's ancestors, the second recorded events of Akbar's reign, and the third volume — the Ain-i Akbari — covered his administration, household, army, revenues, and the geography of his empire, along with rich statistical details about crops, yields, prices, wages, and revenues.
08Who was Nur Jahan and what was her role in Jahangir's court?
Mehrunnisa married Emperor Jahangir in 1611 and received the title Nur Jahan. She remained loyal and supportive to the monarch. As a mark of honour, Jahangir struck silver coins bearing his titles on one side and the inscription 'struck in the name of the Queen Begum, Nur Jahan' on the other. She also issued farmans (orders) carrying the seal 'Command of her most Sublime and Elevated Majesty Nur Jahan Padshah Begum'.
09What was Akbar's policy of sulh-i kul?
Sulh-i kul means 'universal peace.' Under this policy, Akbar's imperial dominions had room for followers of all religions, creeds, and beliefs. As Jahangir described it, Sunnis and Shias met in one mosque and Christians and Jews in one church to pray. Abul Fazl helped Akbar frame this idea so that he could govern a society composed of many religions, cultures, and castes.
10How did the Mughals treat Rajputs who resisted and then surrendered?
The Mughals campaigned against rulers who refused to accept their authority, but once defeated, these rulers were honourably treated — their lands were given back to them as assignments. This careful balance of defeating but not humiliating opponents helped the Mughal Empire expand and stabilise.
11How did the Mughal Empire decline after the 17th century?
As the authority of the Mughal emperor slowly declined, his servants emerged as powerful centres of power in the regions, constituting new dynasties in provinces like Hyderabad and Awadh. By the 18th century the provinces had consolidated their independent political identities, even while nominally recognising the Mughal emperor in Delhi as their master. Peasant revolts also challenged the empire's stability from the end of the 17th century.
12Can I read the NCERT Our Pasts II textbook PDF for free?
Yes — the full NCERT Our Pasts II Class 7 History PDF is available free on cbseprepmaster.com with no sign-up required.
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