Chapter 7 — The Making of Regional Cultures

Manipravalam literally means 'diamonds and corals,' referring to two languages — Sanskrit and the regional language (Malayalam). A 14th-century text dealing with grammar and poetics was composed in Manipravalam.

The Chera kingdom of Mahodayapuram was established in the 9th century in the south-western part of the peninsula, which is part of present-day Kerala. Its rulers introduced the Malayalam language and script in their inscriptions.

Anantavarman, one of the most important rulers of the Ganga dynasty, decided to erect a temple for Purushottama Jagannatha at Puri. Jagannatha means 'lord of the world' and is a name for Vishnu. In 1230, king Anangabhima III dedicated his kingdom to the deity and proclaimed himself the deity's 'deputy.'

They felt that controlling the temple would make their rule acceptable to the local people. The Mughals, Marathas, and the English East India Company all attempted to gain control over the temple.

Kathak is a classical dance form. Its name comes from 'katha,' a word used in Sanskrit and other languages for story. The Kathaks were originally a caste of story-tellers in temples of north India who embellished their performances with gestures and songs. Kathak began evolving into a distinct dance form with the spread of the bhakti movement.

Mughal emperors and their nobles were major patrons — Kathak was performed in their courts where it acquired its present features. It later developed under the patronage of the courts of Rajasthan (Jaipur gharana) and Wajid Ali Shah, the last Nawab of Awadh (Lucknow gharana).

Kathak developed two gharanas (traditions): one in the courts of Rajasthan (Jaipur gharana) and the other in Lucknow, which grew into a major art form under the patronage of Wajid Ali Shah, the last Nawab of Awadh. Both emphasised intricate and rapid footwork, elaborate costumes, and enactment of stories.

Basohli is a bold and intense style of miniature painting that developed by the late 17th century in the Himalayan foothills around modern-day Himachal Pradesh. The most popular text painted in this style was Bhanudatta's work.

Nadir Shah's invasion and conquest of Delhi in 1739 resulted in the migration of Mughal artists to the Himalayan hills. They found ready patrons there, leading to the founding of the Kangra school. By the mid-18th century, Kangra artists developed a lyrical style featuring soft colours — cool blues and greens — with themes drawn from Vaishnavite traditions.

Many Bengali temples were built of brick and terracotta. They copied either the double-roofed (doochala) or four-roofed (chauchala) structure of local thatched huts. In the four-roofed structure, four triangular roofs placed on the four walls move up to converge on a curved line or point. Temples were built on a square platform; interiors were relatively plain but outer walls were decorated with paintings, ornamental tiles, or terracotta tablets. Vishnupur in Bankura district is known for outstanding terracotta decoration.

Pirs were community leaders who functioned as teachers and adjudicators in new settlements and were sometimes credited with supernatural powers. The term included Sufi saints, soldiers, Hindu and Buddhist deities, and animistic spirits. Early settlers in unstable new communities sought order and assurance, which Pirs provided. Their cult became very popular and their shrines can be found throughout Bengal.

Minstrels preserved the memories of Rajput heroes in poems and songs so that others would be inspired to follow their example. Stories about heroes depicted dramatic situations and strong emotions — loyalty, friendship, love, and valour — and were popular with ordinary people as well.

Mughal emperors Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan patronised highly skilled miniature painters who primarily illustrated manuscripts containing historical accounts and poetry. These miniatures depicted court scenes, battles, hunting, and social life, and were generally painted in brilliant colours.

Bengali is derived from Sanskrit, but its development involved multiple stages. From the 4th–3rd centuries BCE, commercial ties with Magadha strengthened Sanskrit's influence. The Gupta rulers settled Brahmanas in north Bengal in the 4th century. In the 7th century, the Chinese traveller Xuan Zang noted that Sanskrit-related languages were used across Bengal. Akbar conquered Bengal in 1586. Modern Bengali also absorbed non-Sanskrit words from tribal languages, Persian, and European languages.

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