Chapter 13 — The Story of Indian Farming

The three cropping seasons are kharif, rabi, and zaid. Kharif crops (such as rice, maize, cotton, and groundnut) are sown with the southwest monsoon and grown in hot, heavy-rainfall conditions. Rabi crops (such as wheat, mustard, barley, and gram) are winter crops grown in cooler, drier conditions. Zaid crops (such as watermelon, cucumber, and muskmelon) are grown during the summer season.

These three terms are of Arabic origin and have been used in India since Mughal times. Before these Arabic terms became widely used, the same seasons were called kedara (wet crops), haimana (winter crops), and graishmica (summer crops) in older Indian texts.

India has six major soil types: alluvial soil (silt deposited by rivers, very nutrient-rich), black soil (formed from volcanic rocks, holds moisture well, also called cotton soil), red soil (formed from weathered lava or old rocks, reddish due to iron content), laterite soil (formed by rain weathering, not very fertile), desert or sandy soil, and mountain or alpine soil (thin, rough, and rocky). Each soil type supports different crops.

India experiences two monsoons: the southwest monsoon (June to September), which is crucial for kharif crops in northern and central India, and the northeast monsoon (October to December), which brings rainfall to eastern and southern India. States like Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, and Andhra Pradesh can grow rice throughout the year because they receive water from both monsoons as well as irrigation. Farmers who depend entirely on rainfall face risks like drought and unpredictable monsoons.

The Green Revolution was a major shift in Indian agriculture in the 1960s and 1970s. It introduced high-yielding varieties of seeds, increased irrigation, chemical fertilisers and pesticides, and mechanised equipment like tractors and harvesters. It was led by M.S. Swaminathan, who later received the Bharat Ratna, and it helped India achieve self-sufficiency in food grain production, particularly wheat and rice.

Over the decades, the long-term effects of the Green Revolution have become visible. These include the impoverishment of soil, depletion of groundwater, contamination of soil and water by chemical fertilisers and pesticides, and damage to human and animal health — including the multiplication of cancer cases in rural areas as established by scientific studies. The use of chemicals also disrupts ecosystems by harming important creatures like bees, which are necessary for pollination.

Intercropping is the practice of growing two or more different crops simultaneously in the same field. Archaeological evidence at the Harappan site of Kalibangan in Rajasthan shows perpendicular furrows indicating intercropping around 2800 BCE — and the same practice continued in the 1960s, about 4,800 years later, showing the deep roots of this tradition in Indian farming.

India has a rich history of irrigation. Traditional systems include phad systems (community canals in Maharashtra that divert river water), bamboo drip irrigation (used in northeastern India to channel spring water through bamboo pipes), and various water structures like kull, kund, ahar, pokhar, eri, and surangam. The Kallanai anicut across the Kaveri River, built about 1,800 years ago, is still in use. Modern methods include drip irrigation (slow delivery of water directly to plant roots) and sprinkler irrigation (water sprayed over crops like artificial rain).

Indian farmers face several serious challenges. Landholdings have been shrinking as land is divided among family members — the average holding is about three-fourths of a hectare, roughly the size of a football field. Machinery designed for large farms is expensive and often unsuitable for small farms. Climate change is causing more unpredictable weather, droughts, and extreme rainfall, increasing the risk of crop failure. Financial pressures force many farmers into debt traps, and by some estimates as many as 2,300 farmers are compelled to abandon agriculture every day.

Sikkim became the world's first 100% organic state. In 2014, it banned chemical fertilisers and pesticides and adopted an organic farming model focused on natural farming practices. This makes Sikkim a leading example of sustainable agriculture in India.

Panchagavya is a fermented mixture of five cow products: dung, urine, milk, curd, and ghee. Recent studies have shown that it acts as a biofertiliser, enhancing crop growth and productivity while increasing plants' resistance to diseases. It is an example of a traditional practice that modern science has validated.

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