Chapter 5 — The Rise of Empires

An empire is a large territory made up of many smaller kingdoms or territories, all brought under one powerful ruler called an emperor. The emperor rules from a capital city, while the smaller rulers continue governing their own areas but must pay tribute and accept the emperor's authority. A kingdom is typically a single territory under one king, whereas an empire brings many such kingdoms together under one overlord.

The word 'empire' comes from the Latin word 'imperium', which means 'supreme power'. Ancient Sanskrit texts used similar ideas with words like 'samraj' (lord of all or supreme ruler), 'adhiraja' (overlord), and 'rajādhiraja' (king of kings) to describe an emperor.

A tributary (also called a vassal) is a ruler or state that has submitted to an emperor and pays tribute as a sign of submission, loyalty, or respect. Tribute could include money, gold or other precious metals, grain, livestock, elephants, or other valuable goods produced in their kingdom. In return, the emperor generally allowed them to continue governing their own areas.

Magadha was located in the resource-rich Ganga plains with fertile land, abundant forests for timber, and elephants for the army. Iron ore and other minerals from nearby hilly regions were very important — iron ploughs increased agricultural produce and iron weapons made the army stronger. The Ganga and Son rivers also provided a geographical advantage for trade and transport, boosting Magadha's income and power. Powerful early kings like Ajātaśhatru also played a crucial role.

Kautilya — also called Chanakya or Vishnugupta — was a teacher at the famous Taxila university. He became the mentor and adviser of Chandragupta Maurya, using his knowledge of politics, governance, and economics to help build the Maurya Empire. His famous work, the Arthashastra (meaning 'the science of governance and economics'), covered many areas like defence, economics, administration, justice, urban planning, agriculture, and people's welfare.

Kautilya's concept of saptanga lists seven parts that together make a settled, well-protected, and prosperous kingdom: (1) the king (swami), (2) councillors, ministers, and officials (amatya), (3) the territory and its population (janapada), (4) fortified towns and cities (durga), (5) the treasury or wealth of the kingdom (kosha), (6) the forces of defence and law and order (danda), and (7) allies (mitra). All seven together were needed for a kingdom to function well.

Alexander was a young and powerful Greek king from Macedonia who built one of the largest empires in world history by conquering the Persian Empire and spreading Greek cultural influence. He came to India during 327–325 BCE, defeated King Porus of the Pauravas in Punjab, but faced fierce resistance from local tribes and rulers. His soldiers, tired and homesick, refused to march further toward the Ganga River. Alexander retreated through a coastal route and harsh desert regions with heavy losses from thirst, hunger, and disease, and died in Babylon at the age of 32 (324–323 BCE).

Around 321 BCE, just a few years after Alexander left India, Chandragupta Maurya overthrew the Nanda empire and took control of Magadha, with Pataliputra as his capital. With the guidance of Kautilya as his strategist, he gradually expanded the empire, absorbing the Nanda territories and then defeating the Greek satraps left behind by Alexander in the northwest. The empire eventually stretched from the northern plains to the Deccan plateau. He also hosted Megasthenes, a Greek historian and diplomat, who wrote about India in his book Indika.

Ashoka marched on Kalinga (modern-day Odisha) and waged a ferocious war. Seeing the enormous amount of death and destruction on the battlefield, Ashoka chose to give up violence and, to the greatest extent possible, adopt the path of peace and non-violence that the Buddha taught. He then sent emissaries to Sri Lanka, Thailand, Central Asia, and beyond to spread the message of the Buddha, and issued edicts across his empire encouraging people to follow dharma.

Ashoka issued edicts — official declarations — engraved on rocks or pillars in many parts of his empire, containing messages for his people and encouraging them to follow dharma. Most were inscribed in Prakrit, the popular language of the time, written in Brahmi script, which is considered the mother of all regional scripts of India. In his edicts, Ashoka called himself 'Devanampiya Piyadasi', meaning 'Beloved of the Gods' and 'one who regards others with kindness'. They show his concern for the welfare of all people, including those outside his empire, and detail instructions on fair conduct for his officials.

Cities like Pataliputra were bustling centres of governance and commerce with palaces, public buildings, and well-planned streets with signage. Blacksmiths, potters, carpenters, jewellers, and other artisans lived and worked in cities. Houses were made of wood and could be up to two storeys tall; streets had vessels of water stored at intervals in case of fire. Two crops were sown each year (as rain fell in both summer and winter), so famines were rare and granaries were well stocked. People wore cotton garments — a lower garment and an upper cloth thrown over the shoulders.

Guilds, called 'shrenīs' in ancient texts, were powerful associations of traders, craftsmen, moneylenders, or agriculturists. A guild had a head (usually elected) and executive officers, and had the autonomy to create their own internal rules without interference from the king. Guilds brought people together as collaborators who shared information on markets, supply, demand, and workforce. They spread over large parts of India and endured for centuries, and are considered an excellent example of the self-organising abilities of Indian society.

The chapter explains several reasons. Local rulers, burdened with increasing demands for tribute (especially during long military campaigns or droughts), may grow resentful and break away. A weak emperor after a powerful one may embolden local kings to stop paying tribute. The larger an empire, the harder it is to hold together — far-off territories are often the first to split away. Economic crises caused by natural calamities like floods or long droughts can also shake an empire's structure. The Maurya Empire itself continued only half a century after Ashoka's death before smaller kingdoms broke off and became independent around 185 BCE.

The capital of a pillar that Ashoka erected at Sarnath — featuring four lions on a ring with the dharmachakra (wheel of dharma) and other animals — was chosen as India's national emblem, to which the Sanskrit motto 'satyameva jayate' (truth alone triumphs) was added. The dharmachakra is also depicted at the centre of India's national flag. The motto comes from the Mundaka Upanishad.

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