Chapter 3 — Kinship, Caste and Class: Early Societies

The chapter covers early Indian societies from c. 600 BCE to 600 CE.

Patriliny means tracing descent from father to son, grandson, and so on. Under this system, sons could claim the resources — including the throne in the case of kings — of their fathers. Most ruling dynasties from c. sixth century BCE onward claimed to follow this system, and the central story of the Mahabharata reinforced the idea that patriliny was valuable.

Sanskrit texts use kula to designate families, jnati for the larger network of kinfolk, and vamsha for lineage.

From c. 1000 BCE, Brahmanas classified people (especially Brahmanas) in terms of gotras. Each gotra was named after a Vedic seer, and all those belonging to the same gotra were regarded as his descendants. Two key rules applied: women were expected to give up their father's gotra and adopt their husband's on marriage, and members of the same gotra could not marry each other.

Satavahana queens retained names derived from their father's gotras (such as Gotama and Vasistha) rather than adopting their husband's gotra name as Brahmanical rules required. Additionally, some women who married Satavahana rulers belonged to the same gotra, which means endogamy — marriage within the kin group — was practised, contrary to the exogamy prescribed in Brahmanical texts.

The four varnas were Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras. Brahmanas were to study and teach the Vedas, perform sacrifices, and give and receive gifts. Kshatriyas were to engage in warfare, protect people, administer justice, study the Vedas, and make gifts. Vaishyas shared those last three duties and were also expected to engage in agriculture, pastoralism, and trade. Shudras were assigned only the occupation of serving the three higher varnas.

Kanyadana refers to the gift of a daughter in marriage. Within the framework of patriliny and exogamy, daughters had no claims to household resources, and marrying them into families outside the kin group was considered desirable. This gave rise to the belief that kanyadana was an important religious duty of the father.

According to the Shastras, only Kshatriyas could be kings, but in practice several important ruling lineages had different origins. The social background of the Mauryas was debated — Buddhist texts called them Kshatriyas while Brahmanical texts described them as of 'low' origin. The Shungas and Kanvas, successors of the Mauryas, were Brahmanas. The best-known Satavahana ruler, Gotami-puta Siri-Satakani, claimed to be a unique Brahmana. Political power was in practice open to anyone who could muster support and resources.

Ekalavya was a forest-dwelling nishada (from a hunting community) who approached Drona, a Brahmana who taught archery to the Kuru princes. Drona refused to teach him, so Ekalavya made a clay image of Drona and taught himself, acquiring great skill. When Drona later demanded Ekalavya's right thumb as his fee, Ekalavya cut it off and offered it. The story illustrates prescriptions about which social groups could pursue which skills, and the consequences of transgressing those boundaries.

Stridhana (literally 'a woman's wealth') referred to gifts women received on the occasion of their marriage. This could be inherited by their children without the husband having any claim. However, the Manusmriti warned women against hoarding family property or their own valuables without the husband's permission, and stated that the paternal estate was to be divided equally amongst sons — women could not claim a share of these resources.

Brahmanas cited the Purusha sukta from the Rigveda to claim the varna order was divinely ordained — Brahmanas from the mouth, Kshatriyas from the arms, Vaishyas from the thighs, and Shudras from the feet of the primeval man Purusha. Buddhists, by contrast, argued through a text in the Sutta Pitaka that kingship arose from human choice: people chose a leader (mahasammata, 'the great elect') to maintain order and paid him in rice. Buddhists did not regard social differences as natural or inflexible, and rejected claims to status based on birth.

The Critical Edition began in 1919 under V.S. Sukthankar and involved collecting Sanskrit manuscripts from across the subcontinent — from Kashmir and Nepal in the north to Kerala and Tamil Nadu in the south. Scholars compared verses from each manuscript, selected those common to most versions, and published them in volumes running to over 13,000 pages. The project took 47 years to complete. More than half the pages are devoted to regional variations documented in footnotes and appendices.

Yes — the NCERT PDF for Themes in Indian History Part I, Chapter 3 (Kinship, Caste and Class: Early Societies) is available free on this site with no sign-up required.